Asian Languages and Pronouns

We all know, language hierarchy is undoubtedly infamous in this part of the world. First, what is language hierarchy? A language hierarchy is presence of different registers used when speakers interact with another speakers of different age and/or social status. It is a spectrum of differences; from just using only different pronouns until changing the whole sentence structure (as if different languages in a language... hahaha). Example of languages which feature this in them are Korean, Thai and Javanese. Today, I am going to talk about 2 languages: Malay and Javanese - maybe a bit of comparison with other languages as well.

Malay

Well, Malay has a quite good basic pronouns (well, compared to Javanese) and the pronouns do not require gender distinction (which most Asian languages are, unlike the Indo-European). A very distinct feature in Malay's pronouns is how it treat the plural first speakers (we). In Malay, you have to choose either 'kita' or 'kami' which in English both mean 'we'. 'Kita' is used when we include the second speaker(s) into 'we'. While 'kami' is used when we are not including the second speaker(s) in 'we'.

In Malay, we only need to change a suitable pronouns when we speak to a different age or social status speaker. E.g. among close friends, we would use 'aku' but with anyone older than us or a stranger, we would use 'saya'. For stranger, once we established the age and the social status, we can then sort to a more appropriate pronouns.

It is the same thing when we want to address the one we speak to. Establish the age and social status, and address accordingly. We have 'kau' or 'engkau' which is considered vulgar and used only with close friends. 'Awak' or 'kamu' are a neutral and widely accepted pronouns when addressing strangers. However, here come the most frustrated point, although you have many words to address people, Malay speakers (and often many other Asian languages) would just dropped(!) the pronouns in daily conversation (not in formal setting). Instead of "Awak nak makan?" - (Do you want to eat?), we would say "Nak makan?" or just simply "Makan?" (literally means 'to eat?').

Oh, it just didnt stop there. Using 'kamu' or 'awak' to older people could be considered rude! Use mak cik, pak cik, encik, puan, abang, kakak or any other equivalent - but not kamu or awak. It also sounds weird. And those who have titles... datuk or dato' or tan sri or tun or etc... (i dont want to talk about honorary titles in Malaysia - it is complicated, at least for me).

So, do you think Malay alone is hard enough right to be socially right when speaking? Wait till you encounter Javanese...

Javanese

Aahhh... the most refined literate language of Southeast Asia, at least claims of a few. This language is the hardcore of language hierarchy in Southeast Asia. Why just restrict the system into pronouns only, go for all! Like, excuse me? Yes, Javanese doesnt only change pronouns to suit the one been spoken to, they change a lot - even verbs, adjectives and to some extent the sentence structure! And it has 3 main social registers (yes, 3 not 2) namedly krama, madya and ngoko. Ngoko is the lowest register and considered as vulgar. It is only used between close friends (not even between husband and wife!). Madya is the middle register, used towards strangers. Krama is the highest register, used to a respectful or noble people.

Example:
The sentence of "Do you want to eat?"
Ngoko - Kowe arep mangan?
Madya - Sampeyan badhe nedha?
Krama - Panjenengan badhe dahar?

And let say, the words for 'to sleep' are: turu (ngoko), tilem (madya) and sare (krama). The words for 'I' are aku (ngoko), kawula or kula (madya and krama). So what do you think the sentence of "I want to sleep." in Krama register?

"Kula badhe sare."????
Wrong. Totally wrong.
The right way is: "Kula arep turu."

If you are socially lower status or younger than the one you speak to, the former is considered as "snobbish"! And it is rude. Even if you already have all the "krama" words in a sentence, it doesnt necessarily implied you are super polite. You have to use it in a right place!

In addition, inside these three registers, there are subregisters which used in a very specific social settings. And the degree of krama is different from one district to another. What is considered as krama in one district might not so in another district! No wonder Javanese is not chosen as the national language or bahasa pemersatu of Indonesia. The complexity of the language registers required a person to understand the realm of Javanese social structure. Not using it right, you might end up offending people. However, not all Javanese language adhere to this "language feudalism". The Eastern Javanese dialect or Suroboyo speech, is an egaliter dialect, which emphasize less on this social registers.

"Benua sunda" or Sundaland Historical Events Timelines:

75, 000 YA (Years Ago)

- First group of human (homo sapiens sapiens) from Africa (Out of Africa theory) reached the mass land called Sundaland. There were two groups who were genetically different - Haplogroup K2 and Haplogroup C2. K2 is the genetic group of current Negritos and C2 is the genetic group of pure Melanesians.

72, 000 YA
- Mount Toba (in Sumatra) eruption lead to global catastrophic event.
- The gases and fumes were brought towards India and Pakistan causing extinction of human in the region.
- However, some of Sundaland population survived since the gases and fumes didn't effecting some part of Sundaland.
- This event lead to 6 years of nuclear snow and 100 years of cold climate.

60, 000 - 45, 000 YA
- Repopulating and populating of India subcontinet and East Asia from Sundaland population.
- K2 group's descendents is Haplogroup NO, which gave rise to Haplogroup O (ancestors of Austronesian, Austroasiatic, Sino-tibetan, Tai-Kadai and Hmong-mien people).

46, 000 YA
- the first human group (most probably Haplogroup C2) reached Australia during a window period whereby human can travel from Sundaland to Australia (or Sahul) by foot.
-This group gave rise to the Austroloid people, abrogines of Australia.

20, 000 YA
- Last glacial maximum.
- Lead to migration from northern part of Sundaland towards the already populated southern part of Sundaland, due to cold climate.
- This lead to fragmentation of human population in South Asia, East Asia and Southeast Asia (or Sundaland), and in-situ migration (within a the same region).

14, 000 YA
- Sundaland population had attained paddy plantation technology, the earliest known in the world and rearing of animal for domestic use.
- First great flood occured. This lead to separation of Sundaland mass into islands that we know today: Borneo, Java and Sumatra.

11, 000 YA
- Second great flood. The flooding had left great impact on Sundaland people especially the ancestor of Austronesian people - acquisition of seafaring skills, stilt house technology and recorded in the legends or manuscripts (e.g. La Galigo) and its culture.
- Perak-Man found in Lenggong valley, Perak shown a smoothed-stone equipment indicating that our region did not undergone Mesolithic or a very brief Mesolithic period and early Neolithic period in our region.

8, 000 YA
- Third and last great flood. Malay peninsular was the last to separated from the rest of Sundaland and still connected to the mainland Southeast Asia by a narrow isthmus - Kra isthmus.
- At this point, it was attested that the Austroasiatic and Austronesia first begun to branch from Austric root.
- With the acquisition of seafaring skills, the Austronesian expansion (of culture, language and people) was made possible.
- The earliest Austronesian expansion was known to be the Melanesia (area of Maluku and Papua).
- This lead to creolisation between Austronesian languages and Melanesian languages and also inter-mixed marriage in the region. Today, most languages in this region belongs to Nuclear Eastern Malayo-Polynesian group, which is the subfamily of Austronesia language family. Genetically, there are degree of mixture between Melanesian haplogroup (C2) and Austronesian haplogroup (O1).
- The earliest known pottery (or claypot) culture found in Southeast Asia.

4, 500 YA
- Bronze age achieved in Southeast Asia.
- A bronze drum was found in Terengganu, thought to be from Dong Son, central Vietnam*.
* At that time, central Vietnam was a region of Champa (one of Austronesian people).

2, 500 YA
- Iron Age achieved in Southeast Asia.
- The earliest known site is Sg. Batu, Kedah. Sg Batu was an entreport, exporting iron to India, Middle East and Africa.
- From Arabic travellers, they stated that the most fine swords in the world were: Qala'i (from Kalah i.e. Kedah), Yamani (from Yemen) and Hindi (from India).

* *Austronesian people was formerly called the Brown race, Malay race, Ocenia race and Malayo-Polynesia race.

To be continued...

Borneo: Malay and Dayak

Malay is a term used to refer to the coastal people and the people of the King/Sultan in Malay archipelago. After Islamisation of this region, Malay had been highly associated with Islam, and for those who embraced Islam were also called Masuk Melayu (although this is not necessarily true or compulsory). This trend lasted until post-colonial era whereby in modern time, anyone who embrace Islam are not required to "Masuk Melayu" or identify as Malay any more.

Below are the coastal people of Borneo:
1. Sarawakian Malay
2. Sambas Malay
3. Pontianak Malay
4. Pembuang Malay
5. Sampit Malay
6. Banjar (Malay)
7. Pasir Malay
8. Kutai Malay
9. Berau Malay
10. Bulungan Malay
11. Tidung Malay
12. Bajau
13. Suluk
14. Bisayan
15. Kedayan
16. Brunein Malay
17. Melano

Although some of them do not have "Malay" word in their ethnics name, they are actually Malay. For example, Banjar and Kedayan. They speak languages very close to Malay (both belonging to Malayan group) and have a closer customs like Malay. And some of the ethnics mentioned above are sometimes considered as Malay, like Suluk and Bajau, most probably due to their same faith as the rest of ethnic Malays; i.e. Islam. However, they are not ethnically Malay as their languages are quite far from Malay. They belong to Visayan and Bajaw-Sama groups respectively (both belong to the Philippines group). Some of the Malay people like Tidung Malay, Bulungan Malay, Kutai Malay, Banjar and many more were actually Dayak tribes who had previously reverted to Islam en mass and adopted the title Malay to represent their ethnicity.

Dayak is a collective term used to classify non-coastal and non-Malay native ethnics in Borneo. Dayak word originated from Kenyah language which mean upstream of the river or interior. Some people claimed that the word Dayak means human in Ibanese. Daya in Kanayatn language means land people (Orang Darat). Meanwhile, Daya in Malay means force or power or gravity. Banjar people on the other hand, used to call Dayak as Biaju which literally means "from the upstream area".

Although Dayak are considered as a group of ethnics, they do not speak the same language groups. They are at least, 5 language groups spoken by Dayak; i.e. Malayic group (such as Iban, Bukit, and Mualang), Land Dayak group (such as Bidayuh and Jago), Sabahan group (such as Dusun and Kadazan), Northern Borneon group (such as Murut and Melanau) and Barito group (such as Ngaju and Maanyan).

There are more or less 8 sub-groups within the Dayak. They are:
1. Ngaju group
2. Ibanic group (a.k.a Sea Dayak)
3. Klemantan group (a.k.a. Land Dayak)
4. Apau-Kayan group
5. Murut group
6. Kadazan-Dusun group
7. Punan group
8. Ot Danum group

Ngaju group includes Dayak Ngaju, Dayak Meratus, Dayak Bakumpai, Dayak Mendawai, Dayak Kayahan, Dayak Katingan, Dayak Mengkatip, Dayak Berangas dan Dayak Beraki. The Ngaju and Meratus (or Bukit) tribes had involved in the ethnogenesis of Banjar people. Meanwhile, majority of Dayak Bakumpai is Muslim.

Ibanic group includes Iban, Mualang, Semberuang, Sembaru', Bugau, Air Tabun and Kantu. Iban is the biggest ethnic in Sarawak.

Klemantan group includes Sadong, Bidayuh (Jagoi, Biatah), Sanggau, Benyadu', Lundu, Bekatiq, Ukit and Selako. They are mostly found in Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia and some part of Sarawak.

Apau-Kayan group includes Maloh, Kayan, Kenyah, Busang, Aoheng, Modang and Bahau. Some of the Kayan people who converted to Islam had contributed in the ethnogenesis of Bulungan Malay.

Murut group includes Hill Murut, Lun Dayeh, Kelabit, Berawan, Bookan, Paluan, Tagal Dayak, Kajang and Melanau. Murut groups are genetically closer to Tidung Malay and Bulungan Malay as they were previously Dayak before mass conversion into Islam.

Kadazan-Dusun group includes Bonggi, Bundu, Dumpas, Gana, Garo, Ida'an, Kimaragang, Kolobuan, Kuijau, Lingkabau, Liwan, Lobu, Lundayo, Makiang, Malapi, Mangkaak, Minokok, Paitan, Nabai, Pingas, Rumanau, Rungus, Sinobu, Sonsongon, Sinorupu, Sukang, Sungei, Tatana, Tangara, Tidong (near Brunei-Sabah border), Tindal, Tobilung, Tolinting, Tombonuo, Tuhawon, Tutung, Bisaya and Lotud. The Kadazan-Dusun Association also included Kadayan and Murut tribes as a part of Kadazan-Dusun group. Among of the following, many of Orang Sungei, Bisaya and Kadayan people are Muslims.

Punan group includes Punan (Sajau Hovongan, Penihing, Penyawung, Aput), Bukat and Penan. Most of the unclassified ethnics are grouped under Punan ethnic and it might change in the near future as more evidence would be available for proper grouping of Dayak tribes.

Ot Danum group includes Pawan, Kebahan, Kohin, Sabaung Tamoan, Limbai, Tebidahm Ot Danum, Siang, Maanyan, Luangan/Lawangan, Tunjung, Bentiang and Benuaq. Sometimes, Dayak Ngaju is also included in this group. Dayak Maanyan also played a role in ethnogenesis of Banjar people.

Conclusion:
Nowadays, when people convert into a new religion, they are more keen to retained their original ethnic identity rather than embracing a more dominant ethnic group in their new religion community. Some people of mixed-parental ethnicities might as well embraced both or denouncing one of them or adopting a "new" identity (for example Chindian, Sino-kadazan etc). Ethnicity are influenced and entangled by the following factors: genetics, languages, nationality or statehood, and history. At the end, ethnicity is a self-identification of a person. You are what you want to be and what you identify yourself as.

Demystifying Misconceptions of Malay: Constitutional definition v.s. cultural definition of Malay

According to Malaysian constitution, Malay is defined as a person who professes the religion of Islam, habitually speaks the Malay language, conforms to Malay custom and – (a) was before Merdeka Day born in the Federation or in Singapore or is on that day domiciled in the Federation or in Singapore; or (b) is the issue of such a person. Constitutionally, anyone can become Malay, if he or she fulfil the above criteria.

However, culturally, Malay can be defined in two ways: (a) ethnic Malay; or (b) Malay race. Ethnic Malay referred to those who speaks any variant of Malay languages, practices Malay cultures and professes Islam. Historically, Malay people are found on the coastal regions who made seas and oceans as their dwellers and previously professed Hinduism, Buddhism or Animism (or Hyang beliefs). Only after the arrival of Islam, Malay is identical to Islam and it does not change since then.

Malay race is a broader term, used as one of the terms to classify human race. It was first proposed around late 19th century to describe brown race who inhabits the Malay Archipelago or the islands archipelago between Asian mainland and Australia. This term was then replaced with “Austronesia” due to religion association with Malay, in late 20th century. Austronesian people includes those of Pacific islanders, inhabitants of South-east Asia and also Madagascar and Taiwan aborigines (Formosan). These people are bound by similarity in language family, roots of origin, shared ancient cultures, and consciousness as one people.

Constitutional definitions of Malay was revolving around Malay nationalism during colonization period and limited to the Malay Peninsula and Singapore. It was politically driven and bounded by the borders of modern nation-building territories i.e. Malaysia and also time frame i.e. people from any part of Malay Archipelago that resided in Federation or in Singapore before Merdeka Day were considered Malay but those who came after Merdeka Day should be referred as their respective nationalities.

However, cultural definition of ethnic Malay is revolving around the arrival of Islam into this region. Culturally, ethnic Malay views themselves different than the Javanese due to differences in speech and distinguished cultures; different than the Orang Asli due to differences in religion and lifestyles; different than the Dayak due to difference in residential locations (i.e. Dayak historically lives in the interior region while Malay usually lives around the coastal or riverine regions); and different than the Filipino due to differences in religion and nation-building background. However, all the above are considered as Malay race or Austronesian people, originating from the same root.

From a book titled, Around the World with a King by William Armstrong:
{He (the young Siamese King) was surprised at the large stature of his Hawaiian Majesty and asked to what race he belonged. When he was told that there was Malay blood in the Hawaiians, he replied, “The Siamese are partly Malay; we are related”.}

"Bhinekka Tunggal Ika (Diversity in Unity)"

p/s: Only by learning about ourselves and other people around us, we will become more understanding and tolerate.

Membudidaya Keluaran Tempatan: Gula Melaka atau Gula Merah

Lazimnya, gula Melaka diperbuat daripada nira kelapa. Selain daripada pohon kelapa, pohon nipah, pohon lontara dan kelapa sawit juga boleh dijadikan bahan asas dalam pembuatan gula Melaka.

Nira daripada pohon-pohon tersebut disadap ke dalam tabung penyimpan yang biasanya diperbuat daripada buluh setinggi satu kaki. Air kapur turut dicampur ke dalam tabung penyimpan untuk membuang rasa masam nira dan mengelakkan nira menjadi rosak.

Air nira yang dituai turut dipanggil sebagai tuak. Tuak dituang ke dalam kancah (kuali) dan dimasak di atas sabak sehingga mendidih. Tuak dikacau sehingga menjadi kental, berwarna pekat dan berbuih. Peringkat ini dikenali sebagai "bunga sena". Setelah itu, kancah diturunkan dan gula terus dikacau selama beberapa minit untuk menghasilkan gula Melaka yang halus.

Setelah itu, gula dituang ke dalam acuan buluh yang lompong di kedua-dua arahnya. Gula dibiarkan dingin selama 30 minit sebelum dikeluarkan daripada acuannya.

Gula Melaka asli turut tergolong dalam kelompok makanan rendah indeks glisemik (glycemic index) berbanding gula biasa, di mana peningkatan kadar gula dalam darah setelah mengambil gula Melaka adalah lebih rendah berbanding gula biasa. Gula Melaka memiliki indeks glisemik berukuran 35, satu pertiga daripada gula biasa yang mencecah indeks glisemik 93.

Senarai Nama-Nama Etnik Rumpun Melayu (Austronesia) Mengikut Kawasan (Vanua)

Terdapat 4 Vanua atau Benua utama rumpun Melayu di Asia Tenggara. Vanua-vanua tersebut ialah:

1. Vanua Siam
2. Vanua Sunda
3. Vanua Barangay
4. Vanua Maluku

Etnik-Etnik di Vanua Siam

1. Etnik Cham
2. Etnik Khom/Siam Purba (pupus)
3. Etnik Sam-sam
4. Etnik Yawi 
5. Etnik Dambro / Tambro (kemungkinan pupus)
6. Etnik Moklen
7. Etnik Urak Lawoi'
8. Etnik Mertaban/Tenang Sari (pupus)

Etnik-Etnik di Vanua Sunda

1. Etnik Melayu Semenanjung
2. Etnik Melayu Kedah
3. Etnik Melayu Kelantan
4. Etnik Melayu Asli (Orang Asli)
5. Etnik Melayu Sumatera Timur-Riau
6. Etnik Aceh
7. Etnik Batak (termasuk Karo, Toba, Gayo, Mandailing dll)
8. Etnik Minang
9. Etnik Kerinci
10. Etnik Jambi
11. Etnik Musi/Palembang
12. Etnik Melayu Tengah (termasuk Serawai, Pesemah, Col, Kaur, Haji dll)
13. Etnik Bengkulu (termasuk Rejang)
14. Etnik Mentawai-Nias
15. Etnik Bangka-Belitung
16. Etnik Lampung
17. Etnik Orang Dalam (termasuk Sakai, Kubu, Rimba dll)
18. Etnik Orang Laut (termasuk Lom, Selatar, Sekak dll)
19. Etnik Sunda
20. Etnik Jawa
21. Etnik Madura
22. Etnik Betawi
23. Etnik Banten
24. Etnik Cirebon-Banyumasan
25. Etnik Blambangan / Osing
26. Etnik Bali
27. Etnik Sasak
28. Etnik Melayu Sarawak
29. Etnik Bidayuh (termasuk Jagoi, Selako, Sadong dll)
30. Etnik Iban (termasuk Mualang, Kantu dll)
31. Etnik Melanau
32. Etnik Murut
33. Etnik Orang Ulu atau ApoKayan (termasuk Kayan, Kenyah, Bahau dll)
34. Etnik Melayu Brunei
35. Etnik Kedayan
36. Etnik Bisaya
37. Etnik Dusun-Kadazan
38. Etnik Banggi-Ida'an
39. Etnik Suluk
40. Etnik Bajau-Sama
41. Etnik Melayu Bulungan
42. Etnik Melayu Tidung
43. Etnik Melayu Kutai
44. Etnik Melayu Berau
45. Etnik Melayu Paser
46. Etnik Banjar
47. Etnik Melayu Sambas/Pontianak
48. Etnik Dayak Klemantan
49. Etnik Dayak Ngaju/Barito (termasuk Bakumpai, Ot-Danum)
50. Etnik Dayak Maanyan (termasuk Lawangan, Lun Dayeh)
51. Etnik Dayak Meratus / Bukit
52. Etnik Dayak Punan
53. Etnik Melayu Pembuang
54. Etnik Melayu Sampit

Vanua Barangay

1. Etnik Igorot / Ipugao (termasuk Balangao, Bontoc, Ifugao, Isnag, dll)
2. Etnik Tagalog
3. Etnik Kapampangan
4. Etnik Bikol
5. Etnik Pangasinan
6. Etnik Illocano/Ilokano
7. Etnik Palawan (termasuk Cuyunon, Taaw't Bato, Tagbanwa dll)
8. Etnik Mangyan/Mindoro
9. Etnik Panay (termasuk Suludnon, Tumandok dll)
10. Etnik Hiligaynon
11. Etnik Cebuano
12. Etnik Boholno
13. Etnik Butuanon
14. Etnik Surigaonon
15. Etnik Waray-waray
16. Etnik Romblomanon
17. Etnik Aklanon
18. Etnik Caluyanon
19. Etnik Capiznon
20. Etnik Karay-a
21. Etnik Masbateno
22. Etnik Porohanon
23. Etnik Lumad (termasuk Banwaon, B'laan, Bukidnon dll)
24. Etnik Sama-Bajao (termasuk Mapun, Yakan, Samal dll)
25. Etnik Tausug
26. Etnik Iranum
27. Etnik Maguindanao
28. Etnik Maranaw
29. Etnik Kalibugan
30. Etnik Kalagan
31. Etnik Sangirese
32. Etnik Jama Mapun
33. Etnik Molbog
34. Etnik Zamboangueno

Vanua Maluku

1. Etnik Bugis
2. Etnik Makassar
3. Etnik Mandar
4. Etnik To' Raja
5. Etnik Hulontalo
6. Etnik Luwu
7. Etnik Pitu-Ulumma
8. Etnik To Seko
9. Etnik To Ppkoro
10. Etnik To Tawaili
11. Etnik To Palu
12. Etnik To Mni
13. Etnik To Mapute
14. Etnik To Liondang
15. Etnik To Morane
16. Etnik To Balantak
17. Etnik To Banggai
18. Etnik To Landan
19. Etnik To Laki
20. Etnik Mekongka
21. Etnik Bungkumori
22. Etnik Bungku
23. Etnik Muna-Butung
24. Etnik Bare'e
25. Etnik Bajo
26. Etnik Bual
27. Etnik Kaidipan
28. Etnik Minahasa
29. Etnik Manado
30. Etnik Bolaang Mongondou
31. Etnik Lojulo
32. Etnik Sumbawa
33. Etnik Dodonggo
34. Etnik Dompu
34. Etnik Bima
35. Etnik Manggarai
36. Etnik Riung
37. Etnik Nage Keo
38. Etnik Ngada
39. Etnik Uo
40. Etnik Sikka
41. Etnik Ma Mboro
42. Etnik Sumba
43. Etnik Wangapo
44. Etnik Sabu
45. Etnik Roti
46. Etnik Kupang
47. Etnik Atoni
48. Etnik Marae
49. Etnik Belu
50. Etnik Dawan
51. Etnik Uab Meto
52. Etnik Larantuka
53. Etnik Solor
54. Etnik Lomblen
55. Etnik Pantar
56. Etnik Alor
57. Etnik Wetar
58. Etnik Roma
59. Etnik Kisar
60. Etnik Damar
61. Etnik Leti
62. Etnik Selaru
63. Etnik Tanimbar Yamde
64. Etnik Lar
65. Etnik Ordata
66. Etnik Kai
67. Etnik Aru
68. Etnik Ambon
69. Etnik Gor
70. Etnik Seram (Barat, Tengah dan Timur)
71. Etnik Buru
72. Etnik Taliabu
73. Etnik Mangol
74. Etnik Sula
75. Etnik Bacan
76. Etnik Msool
77. Etnik Gane
78. Etnik Weda
79. Etnik Tidore
80. Etnik Jailolo
81. Etnik Ternate
82. Etnik Pa'tani
83. Etnik Suli
84. Etnik Maba
85. Etnik Tobelo
86. Etnik Galela
87. Etnik Loda
88. Etnik Morotai
89. EtnikWaigego
90. Etnik Biak